Explain the three underlying ideologies of 19th centuries?
The political turmoil of the age represented a continuing struggle between seemingly wellentrenched conservative forces and the yearnings of an assortment of liberals and radicals who wanted to change the system in a variety of ways. Liberalism and nationalism sometimes went hand-in-hand in challenging the conservative establishment. In other instances, as in the case of German unification, nationalism became part of a conservative agenda. In still other cases, as conservatives realized they could not maintain the status quo forever; they compromised and even absorbed part of the liberal agenda.
Nineteenth-Century Conservatism: S Conservatives, such as Austria’s Prince Klemens von Metternich, were bent on maintaining the sanctity of traditional political institutions, particularly the monarchy. It was also their goal to maintain a balance of power in Europe in order to ensure a permanent peace. Traditionally they were supported by vested interests, such as landowners, manufacturers, merchants and the churches. Those interests, therefore, usually affected their economic and social policies. They seldom allowed freedom of the press or any serious political opposition, and were often brutal in suppressing dissent.
Nineteenth-Century Liberalism: Liberalism was a curse to conservatives, for it seemed synonymous with revolution. Hostile to practically every conservative institution, liberals did all they could to undermine the prerogatives of the monarchy, the aristocracy and the church. They promoted constitutionalism, the idea that government must be limited to specific powers by a written constitution. They also wanted representative, or parliamentarian, government; in that sense liberalism became synonymous with republicanism. This often led to demands for a constitutional monarchy as a first step toward a more a more satisfactory regime. Liberals also called for a separation of powers among the legislative, executive and judicial branches of government. Above all, they proclaimed the sanctity of the individual and promoted the protection of individual rights – including property rights and personal freedoms. But they also felt that the right to vote should be restricted by property qualifications. In practical terms this limited vote to landowners and well-to-do businessmen and professionals. Liberalism thus became identified with the middle or upper classes, convincing the lower classes that it had little to offer. Early nineteenth-century liberals were adamantly opposed to government intervention in social and economic affairs. They believed that unrestricted private enterprise, an idea first advanced by Adam Smith, would result in greater productivity for everyone, not just the rich. As the century progressed, however, and as industrialism changed the nature of society, laissez-faire (hands off) economics gradually became a tool of businessmen in their quest to remain unfettered by government. At the same time, liberal concern for the individual brought a change in liberal attitudes toward government intervention. The industrial society had created conditions that seemed to destroy the dignity of the workers and that certainly did not require their bosses to be concerned for their heath or physical well being. In the name of the individual, therefore, liberals began to advocate government intervention in the economy for the purpose of promoting individual dignity and freedom. Conservatives began to then mistake liberalism with socialism.
Nineteenth Century Nationalism: Nationalism is a complex ideology; it has many diverse definitions and has been manifested in many ways. As it developed in the nineteenth century, it was based on the assumption that the peoples of a particular geographic area shared a cultural identity, as seen in their common history and, in particular, a common language. Nationalists attempted to make this cultural unity a political reality by defining state boundaries that coincided with the territory where each cultural group lived. This, of course, sounded good, but when empires such as Austria, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire controlled vastly diverse peoples, each of whom chafed under the rule of foreign kings, nationalism could become perplexing and explosive. Nationalism and liberalism were sometimes thought of as synonymous because of the liberal emphasis on freedom and self-government. Unfortunately, some nationalists stressed difference between people to an extent that showed the seeds of antagonism. The modern term “chauvinism” is related to one of Napoleon’s soldiers, Nicolas Chauvin, who was known and later ridiculed for his excessive and belligerent patriotism. It was only a short step to a belief in national superiority. It was even a shorter step to theories of racial superiority and, from there, to justification of genocide, tragically exemplified a century later in German anti-Semitism and the Holocaust.
As Napoleonic wars echoed in Russia, Alexander, although initially admiring Napoleon, entered an anti-French coalition. In December 1805 Austria and Russia lost the battle of Austerlitz, called Napoleon’s greatest victory. After a disastrous defeat in Poland two years later, Alexander had had enough. Alexander and Napoleon fashioned a treaty at Tilsit (July 1807), which was born out of their mutual distaste for Britain, and joined Napoleon's Continental System.
Born in Potsdam on Aug. 3, 1770, Frederick William III succeeded his father, Frederick William II, as king of Prussia in 1797. He began his reign by sending his father's mistresses and favorites packing, and he let it be known that he intended to lift all existing restrictions on religion, to abolish censorship, and to improve the condition of the peasants. Soon, however, he retreated before the opposition of the conservative Prussian nobility.
John Mallord William Turner (1775-1851). One of the finest landscape artists was J.M.W. Turner, whose work was exhibited when he was still a teenager. His entire life was devoted to his art. Unlike many artists of his era, he was successful throughout his career. Joseph Mallord William Turner was born in London, England, on April 23, 1775. His father was a barber. His mother died when he was very young. The boy received little schooling. His father taught him how to read, but this was the extent of his education except for the study of art. By the age of 13 he was making drawings at home and exhibiting them in his father's shop window for sale. Turner was 15 years old when he received a rare honor--one of his paintings was exhibited at the Royal Academy. By the time he was 18 he had his own studio. Before he was 20 print sellers were eagerly buying his drawings for reproduction. He quickly achieved a fine reputation and was elected an associate of the Royal Academy. In 1802, when he was only 27, Turner became a full member. He then began traveling widely in Europe. Venice was the inspiration of some of Turner's finest work. Wherever he visited he studied the effects of sea and sky in every kind of weather. His early training had been as a topographic draftsman. With the years, however, he developed a painting technique all his own. Instead of merely recording factually what he saw, Turner translated scenes into a light-filled expression of his own romantic feelings. As he grew older Turner became an eccentric. Except for his father, with whom he lived for 30 years, he had no close friends. He allowed no one to watch him while he painted. He gave up attending the meetings of the academy. None of his acquaintances saw him for months at a time. Turner continued to travel but always alone. He still held exhibitions, but he usually refused to sell his paintings. When he was persuaded to sell one, he was dejected for days. In 1850 he exhibited for the last time. One day Turner disappeared from his house. His housekeeper, after a search of many months, found him hiding in a house in Chelsea. He had been ill for a long time. He died the following day--Dec. 19, 1851. Turner left a large fortune that he hoped would be used to support what he called "decaying artists." His collection of paintings was bequeathed to his country. At his request he was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral. Although known for his oils, Turner is regarded as one of the founders of English watercolor landscape painting. Some of his most famous works are Calais Pier, Dido Building Carthage, Rain, Steam and Speed, Burial at Sea, and The Grand Canal, Venice.